SPATIO-TEMPORAL SCALAR TRAPS IN GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES OF SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING
WANG Feng-long1,2
1. School of Geography & The Center of Administrative Division and Spatial Governance, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China;
2. The Research Center for Chinese Administrative Divisions & The Center for Modern Chinese City Studies, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
Abstract：Scale is an important yet overlooked concept in geography. However, few studies have examined the scale problem in the emerging geographical studies of subjective well-being (SWB). Based on previous geographical research on the concept of scale and the scalar laws, in combination with the theoretical and empirical studies on SWB, this paper systematically reflects the scalar traps in research on SWB. The scalar traps are mainly manifested as the paradox of scale selection and mis-match among real, analytic and practical scales. First, the measurement of regional level of SWB needs to consider the methods of aggregation, and the intrinsic scales of the geographical factors affecting SWB and the invariable scale for effects of these geographical factors. Second, when analyzing the impacts of geographical environment on SWB, we should not only appropriately deal with the scalar variance of research findings and the integration of research conclusions at different spatial scales, but also avoid the mis-match between the real scale of forming SWB and the analytic scale of geographical factors that influence SWB. Third, individuals will improve their SWB through rescaling and scalar politics such as trade-offs among family members and tactic selection of social groups for comparison.
Clifford N, Holloway S, Rice S P, et al. Key Concepts in Geography[M]. London:Sage, 2009:1-457.
[2]
叶超,蔡运龙.区域地理与系统地理二元论的演变及其透析[J]. 地理研究,2012,31(5):771-781.[Ye Chao, Cai Yunlong. Causes and effects of dualism between regional geography and systematic geography[J]. Geographical Research, 2012,31(5):771-781.]
[3]
Watson M K. The scale problem in human geography[J]. Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography, 1978,60(1):36-47.
[4]
Wu J, Qi Y. Dealing with scale in landscape analysis:An overview[J]. Geographic Information Sciences, 2000,6(1):1-5.
[5]
吕一河,傅伯杰.生态学中的尺度及尺度转换方法[J].生态学报, 2001,21(12):2096-2105.[Lv Yihe, Fu Bojie. Ecological scale and scaling[J]. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2001,21(12):2096-2105.]
[6]
岳天祥,刘纪远.生态地理建模中的多尺度问题[J].第四纪研究, 2003,23(3):256-261.[Yue Tianxiang, Liu Jiyuan. Issues on multiscales in ecogeographical modeling[J]. Quaternary Sciences, 2003, 23(3):256-261.]
[7]
Withers M A, Meentemeyer V. Concepts of scale in landscape ecology[M]//Klopatek J M, Gardner R H. Landscape Ecological Analysis:Issues and Applications. New York, NY:Springer New York, 1999:205-252.
[8]
Clark J S. Integration of ecological levels:Individual plant growth, population mortality and ecosystem processes[J]. Journal of Ecology, 1990,78(2):275-299.
[9]
Calder W A I. Ecological scaling:Mammals and birds[J]. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1983,14(1):213-230.
[10]
Lévy M, Ferrari R, Franks P J S, et al. Bringing physics to life at the submesoscale[J/OL]. Geophysical Research Letters,2012.[2020-09-09]. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2012GL052756. DOI:10.1029/2012GL052756.
[11]
刘继生,陈彦光.城镇体系等级结构的分形维数及其测算方法[J]. 地理研究,1998,17(1):83-90.[Liu Jisheng, Chen Yanguang. Fractal dimensions of hierarchical structure of urban systems and the methods of their determination[J]. Geographical Research, 1998,17(1):83-90.]
[12]
刘继生,陈彦光.城市地理分形研究的回顾与前瞻[J].地理科学, 2000,20(2):166-171.[Liu Jisheng, Chen Yanguang. Fractal studies of urban geography in the past and future[J]. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2000,20(2):166-171.]
[13]
Batty M. The size, scale, and shape of cities[J]. Science, 2008,319(5864):769-771.
[14]
王丰龙,刘云刚.尺度政治理论框架[J].地理科学进展,2017,36(12):1500-1509.[Wang Fenglong, Liu Yungang. Towards a theoretical framework of ‘politics of scale’[J]. Progress in Geography, 2017, 36(12):1500-1509.]
[15]
刘云刚,王丰龙.尺度的人文地理内涵与尺度政治——基于1980年代以来英语圈人文地理学的尺度研究[J].人文地理,2011,26(3):1-6.[Liu Yungang, Wang Fenglong. Concept of scale in human geography and politics of scale:Based on anglophone human geography since 1980s[J]. Human Geography, 2011,26(3):1-6.]
[16]
刘云刚,王丰龙.三鹿奶粉事件的尺度政治分析[J].地理学报, 2011,66(10):1368-1378.[Liu Yungang, Wang Fenglong. Politics of scale in "Sanlu-milkpowder scandal"[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2011,66(10):1368-1378.]
[17]
王丰龙,刘云刚.中国行政区划调整的尺度政治[J].地理学报,2019, 74(10):2050-2060.[Wang Fenglong, Liu Yungang. ‘Politics of scale’ in Chinese administrative division adjustment[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2019,74(10):2050-2060.]
[18]
Swyngedouw E, Heynen N C. Urban political ecology, justice and the politics of scale[J]. Antipode, 2003,35(5):898-918.
[19]
Cox K R. Spaces of dependence, spaces of engagement and the politics of scale, or:Looking for local politics[J]. Political Geography, 1998,17(1):1-23.
[20]
Woodcock C E, Strahler A H. The factor of scale in remote sensing[J]. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1987,21(3):311-332.
[21]
栾海军,田庆久,余涛,等.定量遥感升尺度转换研究综述[J].地球科学进展,2013,28(6):657-664.[Luan Haijun, Tian Qingjiu, Yu Tao, et al. Review of up-scaling of quantitative remote sensing[J]. Advances in Earth Science, 2013,28(6):657-664.]
[22]
李小文,王祎婷.定量遥感尺度效应刍议[J].地理学报,2013,68(9):1163-1169.[Li Xiaowen, Wang Yiting. Prospects on future developments of quantitative remote sensing[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2013,68(9):1163-1169.]
[23]
Openshaw S. Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography No.38:The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem[M]. Norwich:Geobooks, 1984:1-41.
[24]
Fotheringham A S, Wong D W S. The modifiable areal unit problem in multivariate statistical analysis[J]. Environment and Planning A:Economy and Space, 1991,23(7):1025-1044.
[25]
Wang F L, Wang D G. Place, geographical context and subjective well-being:State of art and future directions[M]//Wang Donggen, He Shenjing. Mobility, Sociability and Well-being of Urban Living. Berlin:Springer, 2016:189-230.
[26]
胡志丁,王丰龙,安宁,等.洋能否为中用?西方政治地理与地缘政治发展的借鉴与反思[J].地理研究,2020,39(2):217-231.[Hu Zhiding, Wang Fenglong, An Ning, et al. Can foreign theories be used in China? Reflections and references on the development of Western political geography and geopolitics[J]. Geographical Research, 2020,39(2):217-231.]
[27]
Montello D R. Scale in geography[M]//Smelser N J, Baltes P B. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Oxford:Pergamon, 2001:13501-13504.
[28]
邬建国.景观生态学——概念与理论[J].生态学杂志,2000,19(1):42-52.[Wu Jianguo. Landscape ecology:Concepts and theories[J]. Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2000,19(1):42-52.]
[29]
徐建华,岳文泽,谈文琦.城市景观格局尺度效应的空间统计规律——以上海中心城区为例[J].地理学报,2004,59(6):1058-1067.[Xu Jianhua, Yue Wenze, Tan Wenqi. A statistical study on spatial scaling effects of urban landscape pattern:A case study of the central area of the external circle highway in Shanghai[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2004,59(6):1058-1067.]
[30]
李双成,蔡运龙.地理尺度转换若干问题的初步探讨[J].地理研究, 2005,24(1):11-18.[Li Shuangcheng, Cai Yunlong. Some scaling issues of geography[J]. Geographical Research, 2005,24(1):11-18.]
[31]
柴永福,岳明.植物群落构建机制研究进展[J].生态学报,2016, 36(15):4557-4572.[Chai Yongfu, Yue Ming. Research advances in plant community assembly mechanisms[J]. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2016,36(15):4557-4572.]
[32]
鲁学军,周成虎,张洪岩,等.地理空间的尺度-结构分析模式探讨[J].地理科学进展,2004,23(2):107-114.[Lu Xuejun, Zhou Chenghu, Zhang Hongyan, et al. Analytical scheme on scale-structure of geographical space[J]. Progress in Geography, 2004,23(2):107-114.]
[33]
刘云刚,王丰龙.快速城市化过程中的城市建设用地规模预测方法[J].地理研究,2011,30(7):1187-1197.[Liu Yungang, Wang Fenglong. Holistic forecast method of land use in leap-forward of urbanization[J]. Geographical Research, 2011,30(7):1187-1197.]
[34]
Owen K K, Wong D W. An approach to differentiate informal settlements using spectral, texture, geomorphology and road accessibility metrics[J]. Applied Geography, 2013,38:107-118.
[35]
赵美风,刘盛和,戚伟.社区尺度下流动人口聚居区空间识别与尺度效应——以北京市为例[J].地理研究,2018,37(6):1208-1222.[Zhao Meifeng, Liu Shenghe, Qi Wei. Spatial identification and scale effects of floating population agglomerations at the community scale:A case study of Beijing[J]. Geographical Research, 2018, 37(6):1208-1222.]
[36]
Manson S M. Does scale exist? An epistemological scale continuum for complex human-environment systems[J]. Geoforum, 2008, 39(2):776-788.
[37]
王丰龙,刘云刚.尺度概念的演化与尺度的本质:基于二次抽象的尺度认识论[J].人文地理,2015,30(1):9-15.[Wang Fenglong, Liu Yungang. An analytical framework of scale based on second abstraction[J]. Human Geography, 2015,30(1):9-15.]
[38]
Brenner N. The limits to scale? Methodological reflections on scalar structuration[J]. Progress in Human Geography, 2001,25(4):591-614.
[39]
孟斌,王劲峰.地理数据尺度转换方法研究进展[J].地理学报,2005, 60(2):277-288.[Meng Bin, Wang Jinfeng. A review on the methodology of scaling with Geo-data[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2005, 60(2):277-288.]
[40]
Martin R, Sunley P. Deconstructing clusters:Chaotic concept or policy panacea?[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2003,3(1):5-35.
[41]
Mujahid M S, Diez Roux A V, Morenoff J D, et al. Assessing the measurement properties of neighborhood scales:From psychometrics to ecometrics[J]. American Journal of Epidemiology, 2007, 165(8):858-867.
[42]
Rozenfeld H D, Rybski D, Gabaix X, et al. The area and population of cities:New insights from a different perspective on cities[J]. American Economic Review, 2011,101(5):2205-2225.
[43]
Guo J Y, Bhat C R. Operationalizing the concept of neighborhood:Application to residential location choice analysis[J]. Journal of Transport Geography, 2007,15(1):31-45.
[44]
Delgado M, Porter M E, Stern S. Defining clusters of related industries[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2015,16(1):1-38.
[45]
赵文武,傅伯杰,陈利顶.尺度推绎研究中的几点基本问题[J].地球科学进展,2002,17(6):905-911.[Zhao Wenwu, Fu Bojie, Chen Liding. Some fundamental issues in scaling[J]. Advance in Earth Sciences, 2002,17(6):905-911.]
[46]
陈彦光,刘继生.城市形态分维测算和分析的若干问题[J].人文地理,2007,22(3):98-103.[Chen Yanguang, Liu Jisheng. On fractal dimension calculation and analysis of urban form[J]. Human Geogra-phy, 2007,22(3):98-103.]
[47]
Eeckhout J. Gibrat's law for (all) cities[J]. American Economic Review, 2004,94(5):1429-1451.
[48]
Gehlke C E, Biehl K. Certain effects of grouping upon the size of the correlation coefficient in census tract material[J]. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1934,29(185):169-170.
[49]
陈江平,张瑶,余远剑.空间自相关的可塑性面积单元问题效应[J]. 地理学报,2011,66(12):1597-1606.[Chen Jiangping, Zhang Yao, Yu Yuanjian. Effect of MAUP in spatial autocorrelation[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2011,66(12):1597-1606.]
[50]
Dark S J, Bram D. The modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) in physical geography[J]. Progress in Physical Geography:Earth and Environment, 2007,31(5):471-479.
[51]
Fotheringham A S. Trends in quantitative methods II:Stressing the computational[J]. Progress in Human Geography, 1998,22(2):283-292.
[52]
Budde R, Neumann U. The size ranking of cities in Germany:Caught by a MAUP?[J]. GeoJournal, 2019,84(6):1447-1464.
[53]
Selvin H C. Durkheim's suicide and problems of empirical research[J]. American Journal of Sociology, 1958,63(6):607-619.
[54]
Openshaw S. Ecological fallacies and the analysis of areal census data[J]. Environment and Planning A:Economy and Space, 1984, 16(1):17-31.
[55]
Piantadosi S, Byar D P, Green S B. The ecological fallacy[J]. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1988,127(5):893-904.
[56]
Portnov B A, Dubnov J, Barchana M. On ecological fallacy, assessment errors stemming from misguided variable selection, and the effect of aggregation on the outcome of epidemiological study[J]. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 2007, 17(1):106-121.
[57]
Kwan M-P. The uncertain geographic context problem[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2012,102(5):958-968.
[58]
王丰龙,张衔春,杨林川,等.尺度理论视角下的"一带一路"战略解读[J].地理科学,2016,36(4):502-511.[Wang Fenglong, Zhang Xianchun, Yang Linchuan, et al. Rescaling and scalar politics in the ‘One Belt, One Road’ strategy[J]. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2016,36(4):502-511.]
[59]
Agnew J. The territorial trap:The geographical assumptions of international relations theory[J]. Review of International Political Economy, 1994,1(1):53-80.
[60]
Wang F L, Zou S N, Liu Y G. Territorial traps in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic[J]. Dialogues in Human Geography, 2020,10(2):154-157.
[61]
Diener E. Subjective well-being[J]. Psychological Bulletin, 1984, 95(3):542-575.
[62]
Lyubomirsky S, Sheldon K M, Schkade D. Pursuing happiness:The architecture of sustainable change[J]. Review of General Psychology, 2005,9(2):111-131.
[63]
Wang D G, Wang F L. Contributions of the usage and affective experience of the residential environment to residential satisfaction[J]. Housing Studies, 2016,31(1):42-60.
[64]
Krueger A, Kahneman D, Fischler C, et al. Time use and subjective well-being in France and the US[J]. Social Indicators Research, 2009,93(1):7-18.
[65]
White M P, Dolan P. Accounting for the richness of daily activities[J]. Psychological Science, 2009,20(8):1000-1008.
[66]
Wang F L, Mao Z D, Wang D G. Residential relocation and travel satisfaction change:An empirical study in Beijing, China[J]. Transportation Research Part A:Policy and Practice, 2020,135:341-353.
[67]
Perchoux C, Chaix B, Cummins S, et al. Conceptualization and measurement of environmental exposure in epidemiology:Accounting for activity space related to daily mobility[J]. Health & Place, 2013,21:86-93.
[68]
Newsome T H, Walcott W A, Smith P D. Urban activity spaces:Illustrations and application of a conceptual model for integrating the time and space dimensions[J]. Transportation, 1998,25(4):357-377.
[69]
Wang D G, Li F, Chai Y W. Activity spaces and sociospatial segregation in Beijing[J]. Urban Geography, 2012,33(2):256-277.
[70]
Menezes T, Roth C. Natural scales in geographical patterns[J/OL]. Scientific Reports, 2017.[2020-04-04]. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45823. DOI:10.1038/srep45823.
[71]
Ma J, Tao Y, Kwan M-P, et al. Assessing mobility-based real-time air pollution exposure in space and time using smart sensors and GPS trajectories in Beijing[J]. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 2020,110(2):434-448.
[72]
王丰龙,王冬根.主观幸福感度量研究进展及其对智慧城市建设的启示[J].地理科学进展,2015,34(4):482-493.[Wang Fenglong, Wang Donggen. Measures of subjective well-being:A review[J]. Progress in Geography, 2015,34(4):482-493.]
[73]
Kahneman D, Tversky A. Evaluation by moments:Past and future[M]//Daniel K, Amos T. Choices, Values, and Frames. New York:Cambridge University Press, 1999:2-23.
[74]
Kim-Prieto C, Diener E, Tamir M, et al. Integrating the diverse definitions of happiness:A time-sequential framework of subjective well-being[J]. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2005,6(3):261-300.
[75]
Ehrhardt J J, Saris W E, Veenhoven R. Stability of life-satisfaction over time[J]. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2000,1(2):177-205.
[76]
Hogan J A, Lakey J D. Time-frequency and Time-scale Methods:Adaptive Decompositions, Uncertainty Principles, and Sampling[M]. Boston:Birkhäuser, 2005:1-384.
[77]
Kom E L, Graubard B I, Midthune D. Time-to-event analysis of longitudinal follow-up of a survey:Choice of the time-scale[J]. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1997,145(1):72-80.
[78]
Kalmijn W, Veenhoven R. Measuring inequality of happiness in nations:In search for proper statistics[J]. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2005,6(4):357-396.
[79]
Aslam A, Corrado L. The geography of well-being[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2012,12(3):627-649.
[80]
Oswald F, Schilling O, Wahl H-W, et al. Homeward bound:Introducing a four-domain model of perceived housing in very old age[J]. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2006,26(3):187-201.
[81]
Coulton C. Defining neighborhoods for research and policy[J]. Cityscape, 2012,14(2):231-236.
[82]
Kwan M-P. The neighborhood effect averaging problem (NEAP):An elusive confounder of the neighborhood effect[J/OL]. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2020.[2020-09-09]. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/9/1841. DOI:10.3390/ijerph15091841.
[83]
Cummins R A. Personal income and subjective well-being:A review[J]. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2000,1(2):133-158.
[84]
Wang D G, Schwanen T, Mao Z D. Does exposure to richer and poorer neighborhoods influence wellbeing?[J/OL]. Cities, 2019.[2019-12-01]. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275118305018. DOI:10.1016/j.cities.2019.102408.
[85]
White M P, Alcock I, Wheeler B W, et al. Would you be happier living in a greener urban area? A fixed-effects analysis of panel data[J]. Psychological Science, 2013,24(6):920-928.
[86]
Easterlin R A, Angelescu L, Zweig J S. The impact of modern economic growth on urban-rural differences in subjective well-being[J]. World Development, 2011,39(12):2187-2198.
[87]
Li D, Deal B, Zhou X, et al. Moving beyond the neighborhood:Daily exposure to nature and adolescents' mood[J]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 2018,173:33-43.
[88]
Millward H, Spinney J. Urban-rural variation in satisfaction with life:Demographic, health, and geographic predictors in Halifax, Canada[J]. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 2013,8(3):279-297.
[89]
Baumeister R F, Vohs K D, Aaker J L, et al. Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life[J]. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2013,8(6):505-516.
[90]
Thomas D L, Diener E. Memory accuracy in the recall of emotions[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1990,59(2):291-297.
[91]
Schimmack U, Diener E, Oishi S. Life-satisfaction is a momentary judgment and a stable personality characteristic:The use of chronically accessible and stable sources[J]. Journal of Personality, 2002, 70(3):345-384.
[92]
Suh E, Diener E, Fujita F. Events and subjective well-being:Only recent events matter[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1996,70(5):1091-1102.
[93]
Murphy S C, Bastian B. Emotionally extreme life experiences are more meaningful[J]. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2020, 15(4):531-542.
[94]
Kahneman D, Fredrickson B L, Schreiber C A, et al. When more pain is preferred to less:Adding a better end[J]. Psychological Science, 1993,4(6):401-405.
[95]
Brickman P, Coates D, Janoff-Bulman R. Lottery winners and accident victims:Is happiness relative?[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1978,36(8):917-927.
[96]
Luhmann M, Hofmann W, Eid M, et al. Subjective well-being and adaptation to life events:A meta-analysis[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2012,102(3):592-615.
[97]
Schkade D A, Kahneman D. Does living in California make people happy? A focusing illusion in judgments of life satisfaction[J]. Psychological Science, 1998,9(5):340-346.
[98]
Easterlin R A. Life cycle happiness and its sources:Intersections of psychology, economics, and demography[J]. Journal of Economic Psychology, 2006,27(4):463-482.
[99]
Taylor M P. Tied migration and subsequent employment:Evidence from couples in Britain[J]. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 2007,69(6):795-818.
[100]
Krieger M. Tied and troubled:Revisiting tied migration and subsequent employment[J]. Journal of Marriage and Family, 2020,82(3):934-952.
[101]
Mao Z D, Wang D G. Residential relocation and life satisfaction change:Is there a difference between household couples?[J/OL]. Cities, 2020.[2020-02-01]. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275119301258. DOI:10.1016/j.cities.2019.102565.
[102]
Nordbakke S, Schwanen T. Well-being and mobility:A theoretical framework and literature review focusing on older people[J]. Mobilities, 2013,9(1):104-129.
[103]
Buunk B P, Collins R L, Taylor S E, et al. The affective consequences of social comparison:Either direction has its ups and downs[J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1990, 59(6):1238-1249.
[104]
Diener E, Oishi S, Lucas R E. National accounts of subjective well-being[J]. American Psychologist, 2015,70(3):234-242.
[105]
Musa H D, Yacob M R, Abdullah A M, et al. Enhancing subjective well-being through strategic urban planning:Development and application of Community Happiness Index[J]. Sustainable Cities and Society, 2018,38:184-194.
[106]
Wilson K G. Problems in physics with many scales of length[J]. Scientific American, 1979,241(2):158-179.
[107]
Nottale L. Scale relativity and fractal space-time:Theory and applications[J]. Foundations of Science, 2010,15(2):101-152.
[108]
West G. Scale:The Universal Laws of Life, Growth, and Death in Organisms, Cities, and Companies[M]. New York:Penguin, 2017:1-496.
[109]
Ding C, Cao X Y, Næss P. Applying gradient boosting decision trees to examine non-linear effects of the built environment on driving distance in Oslo[J]. Transportation Research Part A:Policy and Practice, 2018,110:107-117.
